C-51

COYOTES

Jeffrey S. Green

Assistant Regional Director

USDA-APHIS-

Animal Damage Control

Lakewood, Colorado 80228

F. Robert Henderson

Extension Specialist

Animal Damage Control

Kansas State University

Manhattan, Kansas 66506-1600

Mark D. Collinge

State Director

USDA-APHIS-

Animal Damage Control

Boise, Idaho 83705

Fig. 1. Coyote, Canis latrans

Damage Prevention and

Control Methods

Exclusion

Produce livestock in confinement.

Herd livestock into pens at night.

Exclusion fences (net-wire and/or

elec tric), properly constructed and

maintained, can aid significantly in

reducing predation.

Cultural Methods and

Habitat Modification

Select pastures that have a lower

incidence of predation to reduce

exposure of livestock to predation.

Herding of livestock generally reduces

predation due to human presence

during the herding period.

Change lambing, kidding, and calving

seasons.

Shed lambing, kidding, and calving

usually reduce coyote p redation.

Remove carrion to help limit coyote

populations.

Frightening Agents and

Repellents

Guarding dogs: S ome dogs have

significantly reduced coyote

predation.

Donkeys and llamas: S ome are

aggressive toward canines and have

reduced coyote predation.

Sonic and visual repellents: Strobe

lights, sirens, propane cannons, and

others have reduced p redation on

both sheep and calves.

Chemical odor and taste repellents:

None have shown sufficient

effectiveness to be registered for

use.

Toxicants

M-44 ejector devices for use with

sodium cyanide-loaded plastic

capsules. They are most effective

during cold weather (fall to spring).

Livestock protection collars (LPC)

containing Compound 1080

(sodium monofluoroacetate) are

registered for use only in certain

states.

Fumigants

Gas cartridges are registered as a

burrow (den) fumigant.

Trapping

Leghold traps (Nos. 3 and 4) are

effective and are the most versatile

control tool.

Snares are effective where coyotes pass

through or under net-wire fences

and in trail sets.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994

Coop erat ive Extension Division

Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources

University of Nebraska - Lincoln

United States Department of Agriculture

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Animal Damage Control

Great Plains Agricultural Council

Wildlife Committee

C-52

Shooting

Shooting from the ground is effective.

Use rabbit distress calls or mimic

howling or other coyote sou nds to

bring coyotes within shooting

distance.

Aerial hunting is effective in removing

coyotes where terrain, ground

cover, vegetation, regulations, and

landownership conditions permit.

Hunting with dogs is effective for trail-

ing coyotes from kill sites, locating

dens, running coyotes, and assisting

with aerial hunting or calling.

Other Methods

Denning: Remove adult coyotes and/

or their young from dens.

Identification

In body form and size, the coyote

(Canis latrans) resembles a small collie

dog, with erect pointed ears, slender

muzzle, and a bushy tail (Fig. 1).

Coyotes are predominantly brownish

gray in color with a light gray to

cream-colored belly. Color varies

greatly, however, from nearly black to

red or nearly white in some individu-

als and local populations. Most have

dark or black guard hairs over their

back and tail. In western states, typical

adult males weigh from 25 to 45

pounds (11 to 16 kg) and females from

22 to 35 pounds (10 to 14 kg). In the

East, many coyotes are larger than

their western counterparts, with males

averaging about 45 pounds (14 kg) and

females about 30 pounds (13 kg).

Coyote-dog and coyote-wolf hybrids

exist in some areas and may vary

greatly from typical coyotes in size,

color, and appearance. Also, coyotes in

the New England states may differ in

color from typ ical western coyotes.

Many are black, and some are reddish.

These colorations may partially be due

to past hybridization with dogs and

wolves. True wolves are also present

in some areas of coyote range, particu-

larly in Canada, Alaska, Montana,

northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and

Michigan. Relatively few wolves

remain in the southern United States

and Mexico.

Range

Historically, coyotes were most com-

mon on the Great Plains of North

America. They have since extended

their range from Central America to

the Arctic, including all of the United

States (except Hawaii), Canada, and

Mexico.

weaker lambs are also present. Usu-

ally, the stronger lamb is on the

periphery and is more active, making

it more prone to attack than a weaker

lamb that is at the center of the flock

and relatively immobile.

Coyote predation on livestock is gener-

ally more severe during early spring

and summer than in winter for two

reasons. First, sheep and cows are usu-

ally under more intensive manage-

ment during winter, either in feedlots

or in pastures that are close to human

activity, thus reducing the opportunity

for coyotes to take livestock. Second,

predators bear young in the spring and

raise them through the summer, a pro-

cess that demands increased nutri-

tional input, for both the whelping and

nursing mother and the growing

young. This increased demand corre-

sponds to the time when young sheep

or beef calves are on pastures or range-

land and are most vulnerable to attack.

Coyote predation also may increase

during fall when young coyotes dis-

perse from their home ranges and

establish new territories.

General Biology,

Reproduction, and

Behavior

Coyotes are most active at night and

during early morning hours (especially

where human activity occurs), and

during hot summer weather. Where

there is minimal hu man interference

and during cool weather, they may be

active throughout the day.

Coyotes bed in sheltered areas but do

not generally use dens except when

raising young. They may seek shelter

underground during severe weather

or when closely pursued. Their physi-

cal abilities include good eyesight and

Habitat

Many references indicate that coyotes

were originally found in relatively

open habitats, particularly the grass-

lands and sparsely wooded areas of

the western United States. Whether or

not this was true, coyotes have

adapted to and now exist in virtually

every type of habitat, arctic to tropic,

in North America. Coyotes live in

deserts, swamps, tundra, grasslands,

brush, dense forests, from below sea

level to high mountain ranges, and at

all intermediate altitudes. High densi-

ties of coyotes also appear in the sub-

urbs of Los Angeles, Pasadena,

Phoenix, and other western cities.

Food Habits

Coyotes often include many items in

their diet. Rabbits top the list of their

dietary components. Carrion, rodents,

ungulates (usually fawns), insects

(such as grasshoppers), as well as live-

stock and poultry, are also consumed.

Coyotes readily eat fruits such as

watermelons, berries, and other veg-

etative matter when they are available.

In some areas coyotes feed on human

refuse at dump sites and take pets

(cats and small dogs).

Coyotes are opportunistic and gener-

ally take prey that is the easiest to

secure. Among larger wild animals,

coyotes tend to kill young, inexperi-

enced animals, as well as old, sick, or

weakened individuals. With domestic

animals, coyotes are capable of catch-

ing and killing healthy, young, and in

some instances, adult p rey. Prey selec-

tion is based on opportunity and a

myriad of behavioral cues. Strong,

healthy lambs are often taken from a

flock by a coyote even though smaller,

C-53

hearing and a keen sense of smell.

Documented recoveries from severe

injuries are indicative of coyotes’

physical endurance. Although not as

fleet as greyhound dogs, coyotes have

been measured at speeds of up to 40

miles per hour (64 km/hr) and can

sustain slower speeds for several miles

(km).

Distemper, hepatitis, parvo virus, and

mange (caused by parasitic mites) are

among the most common coyote dis-

eases. Rabies and tularemia also occur

and may be transmitted to other ani-

mals and humans. Coyotes harbor

numerous parasites including mites,

ticks, fleas, worms, and flukes. Mortal-

ity is highest during the first year of

life, and few survive for more than 10

to 12 years in the wild. Human activity

is often the greatest single cause of

coyote mortality.

Coyotes usually breed in February and

March, producing litters about 9

weeks (60 to 63 days) later in April and

May. Females sometimes breed during

the winter following their birth, par-

ticularly if food is plentiful. Average

litter size is 5 to 7 pups, although up to

13 in a litter has been reported. More

than one litter may be found in a single

den; at times these may be from

females mated to a single male. As

noted earlier, coyotes are capable of

hybridizing with dogs and wolves, but

reproductive dysynchrony and

behaviors generally make it unlikely.

Hybrids are fertile, although their

breeding seasons do not usually corre-

spond to those of coyotes.

Coyote dens are found in steep banks,

rock crevices, sinkholes, and under-

brush, as well as in open areas. Usu-

ally their dens are in areas selected for

protective concealment. Den sites are

typically located less than a mile (km)

from water, but may occasionally be

much farther away. Coyotes will often

dig out and enlarge holes dug by

smaller burrowing animals. Dens vary

from a few feet (1 m) to 50 feet (15 m)

and may have several openings.

Both adult male and female coyotes

hunt and bring food to their young for

several weeks. Other adults associated

with the denning pair may also help in

feeding and caring for the young. Coy-

otes commonly hu nt as singles or

pairs; extensive travel is common in

their hunting forays. They will hunt in

the same area regularly, however, if

food is p lentiful. They occasionally

bury food remains for later use.

Pups begin emerging from their den

by 3 weeks of age, and within 2

months they follow adults to large

prey or carrion. Pups normally are

weaned by 6 weeks of age and fre-

quently are moved to larger quarters

such as dense brush patches and/or

sinkholes along water courses. The

adults and pups usually remain

together until late summer or fall

when p ups become independent.

Occasionally p ups are found in groups

until the breeding season begins.

Coyotes are successful at surviving

and even flourishing in the presence of

people because of their adaptable

behavior and social system. They typi-

cally display increased reproduction

and immigration in resp onse to

human-induced population reduction.

Damage and Damage

Identification

Coyotes can cause damage to a variety

of resources, including livestock, poul-

try, and crops such as watermelons.

They sometimes prey on pets and are a

threat to public health and safety when

they frequent airport runways and

residential areas, and act as carriers of

rabies. Usually, the primary concern

regarding c oyotes is predation on live-

stock, mainly sheep and lambs. Preda-

tion will be the focus of the following

discussion.

Since coyotes frequently scavenge on

livestock carcasses, the mere presence

of coyote tracks or droppings near a

carcass is not sufficient evidence that

predation has taken place. Other evi-

dence around the site and on the car-

cass must be carefully examined to aid

in determining the cause of death.

Signs of a struggle may be evident.

These may include scrapes or drag

marks on the ground, broken vegeta-

tion, or blood in various places around

the site. The quantity of sheep or calf

remains left after a kill vary widely

depending on how recently the kill

was made, the size of the animal

killed, the weather, and the number

and species of predators that fed on

the animal.

One key in determining whether a

sheep or calf was killed by a predator

is the presence or absence of subcuta-

neous (ju st u nder the skin) hemor-

rhage at the point of attack. Bites to a

dead animal will not produce hemor-

rhage, but bites to a live animal will. If

enough of the sheep carcass remains,

carefully skin out the neck and head to

observe tooth punctures and hemor-

rhage around the punctures. Talon

punctures from large birds of prey will

also cause hemorrhage, but the loca-

tion of these is usually at the top of the

head, neck, or back. This procedure

becomes less indicative of predation as

the age of the carcass increases or if the

remains are scanty or scattered.

Coyotes, foxes, mountain lions, and

bobcats usually feed on a carcass at the

flanks or behind the ribs and first con-

sume the liver, heart, lungs, and other

viscera. Mountain lions often cover a

carcass with debris after feeding on it.

Bears generally prefer meat to viscera

and often eat first the udder from lac-

tating ewes. Eagles skin out carcasses

on larger animals and leave much of

the skeleton intact. With smaller ani-

mals such as lambs, eagles may bite off

and swallow the ribs. Feathers and

“whitewash” (droppings) are usually

present where an eagle has fed.

Coyotes may kill more than one ani-

mal in a single episode, but often will

only feed on one of the animals.

Coyotes typically attack sheep at the

throat, but young or inexperienced

coyotes may attack any part of the

body. Coyotes usually kill calves by

eating into the anus or abdominal area.

Dogs generally do not kill sheep or

calves for food and are relatively

indiscriminate in how and where they

attack. Sometimes, however, it is

difficult to differentiate between dog

and coyote kills without also looking

at other sign, such as size of tracks

(Fig. 2) and spacing and size of canine

C-54

tooth punctures. Coyote tracks tend to

be more oval-shaped and compact

than those of common dogs. Nail

marks are less p rominent and the

tracks tend to follow a straight line

more closely than those of dogs. The

average coyote’s stride at a trot is 16 to

18 inches (41 to 46 cm), which is typi-

cally longer than that of a dog of simi-

lar size and weight. Generally, dogs

attack and rip the flanks, hind quar-

ters, and head, and may chew ears.

The sheep are sometimes still alive but

may be severely wounded.

Accurately determining whether or

not predation occurred and, if so, by

what species, requires a considerable

amount of knowledge and experience.

Evidence must be gathered, pieced

together, and then evaluated in light of

the predators that are in the area, the

time of day, the season of the year, and

numerous other factors. Sometimes

even experts are unable to confirm the

cause of death, and it may be neces-

sary to rely on circumstantial informa-

tion. For more information on this

subject, refer to the section Procedures

for Evaluating Predation on Livestock

and Wildlife, in this book.

Legal Status

The status of coyotes varies depending

on state and local laws. In some states,

including most western states, coyotes

are classified as predators and can be

taken throughout the year whether or

not they are causing damage to live-

stock. In other states, coyotes may be

taken only during specific seasons and

often only by sp ecific methods, such as

trapping. Night shooting with a spot-

light is usually illegal. Some state laws

allow only state or federal agents to

use certain methods (such as snares) to

take coyotes. Some states have a provi-

sion for allowing the taking of pro-

tected coyotes (usually by special

permit) when it has been documented

that they are preying on livestock. In

some instances producers can apply

control methods, and in others, control

must be managed by a federal or state

agent. Some eastern states consider the

coyote a game animal, a furbearer, or a

protected species.

Damage Prevention and

Control Methods

For managing coyote damage, a vari-

ety of control methods must be avail-

able since no single method is effective

in every situation. S uccess usually

involves an integrated approach, com-

bining good husbandry practices with

effective control methods for short

periods of time. Regardless of the

means used to stop damage, the focus

should be on damage p revention and

control rather than elimination of coy-

otes. It is neither wise nor practical to

kill all coyotes. It is imp ortant to try to

prevent coyotes from killing calves or

sheep for the first time. Once a coyote

has killed livestock, it will probably

continue to do so if given the

Wolf

Red fox

4"

Large dog

Fig. 2. Fo otprints of canid predators

Federal statutes that pertain to wildlife

damage control include the Federal

Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenti-

cide Act (FIFRA), which deals with

using toxicants, and the Airborne

Hunting Act, which regulates aerial

hunting.

Laws regulating coyote control are not

necessarily uniform among states or

even among counties within a state,

and they may change frequently. A

1989 Supreme Court action established

that it was not legal to circumvent the

laws relative to killing predators, even

to protect personal property (livestock)

from predation.

2 1/2"

3"

Coyote

5"

C-55

opportunity. Equally important is

taking action as quickly as possible to

stop coyotes from killing after they

start.

Exclusion

Most coyotes readily cross over,

under, or through conventional live-

stock fences. A coyote’s response to a

fence is influenced by various factors,

including the coyote’s experience and

motivation for crossing the fence. Total

exclusion of all coyotes by fencing,

especially from large areas, is highly

unlikely since some eventually learn to

either dig deeper or climb higher to

defeat a fence. Good fences, however,

can be important in reducing preda-

tion, as well as increasing the effective-

ness of other damage control methods

(such as snares, traps, or guarding

animals).

Recent developments in fencing equip-

ment and design have made this

technique an effective and economi-

cally practical method for protecting

sheep from predation under some

grazing c onditions. Exclusion fencing

may be impractical in western range

sheep ranching operations.

Net-Wire Fencing. Net fences in

good repair will deter many coyotes

from entering a pasture. Horizontal

spacing of the mesh should be less

than 6 inches (15 cm), and vertical

spacing less than 4 inches (10 cm). Dig-

ging under a fence can be discouraged

by placing a barbed wire at ground

level or using a buried wire apron

(often an expensive option). The fence

should be about 5 1/2 feet (1.6 m) high

to discourage coyotes from jumping

over it. Climbing can usually be pre-

vented by adding a charged wire at

the top of the fence or installing a wire

overhang.

Barrier fences with wire overhangs

and buried wire aprons were tested in

Oregon and found effective in keeping

coyotes out of sheep pastures (Fig. 3).

The construction and materials for

such fencing are usually exp ensive.

Therefore, fences of this type are rarely

used except around corrals, feedlots,

or areas of temporary sheep confine-

ment.

56"

Fig. 3. Barrier fence with wire overhang and

buried apron.

Electric Fencing. Electric fencing,

used for years to manage livestock, has

recently been revolutionized by the

introduction of new energizers and

new fence designs from Australia and

New Zealand. The chargers, now also

manufactured in the United States,

have high output with low impedance,

are resistant to grounding, present a

minimal fire hazard, and are generally

safe for livestock and humans. The

fences are usually construc ted of

smooth, high-tensile wire stretched to

a tension of 200 to 300 pounds (90 to

135 kg). The original design of electric

fences for controlling predation con-

sisted of multiple, alternately charged

and grounded wires, with a charged

trip wire installed just above ground

level about 8 inches (20 cm) outside the

main fence to discourage digging.

Many recent designs have every wire

charged.

The number of spacings between wires

varies considerably. A fence of 13

strands gave complete protection to

sheep from coyote predation in tests at

the USDA’s US Sheep Experiment Sta-

tion (Fig. 4). Other designs of fewer

wires were effective in some studies,

ineffective in others.

The amount of labor and installation

techniques required vary with each

type of fencing. High-tensile wire

fences require adequate bracing at cor-

ners and over long spans. Electric fenc-

ing is easiest to install on flat, even

terrain. Labor to install a high-tensile

electric fence may be 40% to 50% less

than for a conventional livestock fence.

Labor to keep electric fenc ing func-

tional can be significant. Tension of the

wires must be maintained, excessive

vegetation under the fence must be

removed to prevent grounding, dam-

69"

28"

3" treated pole

7' long

1/4" x 4 1/2" carriage bolt

galvanized woven wire

23" apron

(old fencing)

72" galvanized

fencing

6" stays

4" vertical

spacing at top

1 1/2" at the

bottom

C-56

age from livestock and wildlife must

be repaired, and the charger must be

checked regularly to ensure that it is

operational.

Coyotes and other predators occasion-

ally become “trapped” inside electric

fences. These animals receive a shock

as they enter the pasture and subse-

quently avoid approaching the fence to

escape. In some instances the captured

predator may be easy to spot and

remove from the pasture, but in

others, particularly in large pastures

with rough terrain, the animal may be

difficult to remove.

Electric Modification of Existing

Fences. The cost to completely

replace old fences with new ones,

whether conventional or electric, can

be substantial. In instances where

existing fencing is in reasonably good

condition, the addition of one to sev-

eral charged wires can significantly

enhance the predator-deterring ability

of the fence and its effectiveness for

controlling livestock (Fig. 5). A

charged trip wire placed 6 to 8 inches

(15 to 230 cm) above the ground about

8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) outside the

fence is often effective in preventing

coyotes from digging and crawling un-

der. This single addition to an existing

fence is often the most effective and

economical way to fortify a fence

against coyote passage.

If coyotes are climbing or jumping a

fence, charged wires can be added to

the top and at various intervals. These

wires should be offset outside the

fence. Fencing companies offer offset

brackets to make installation relatively

simple. The number of additional

wires depends on the design of the

original fence and the predicted habits

of the predators.

Portable Electric Fencing. The

advent of safe, high-energy chargers

has led to the development of a variety

of portable electric fences. Most are

constructed with thin strands of wire

running through polyethylene twine or

ribbon, commonly called polywire or

polytape. The polywire is available in

single and multiple wire rolls or as

mesh fencing of various heights. It can

be quickly and easily installed to serve

Fig. 5. Existing woven-wire livestock fence modified with electrified wire.

Outrigger post

with four wires

Fig. 4. High-tensile, electric , antipredator fence.

Fiberglass

stays

Fiberglass

line post

Fiberglass

line post

4"

4"

4"

4"

8"

8"

8"

8"

8"

8"

8"

8"

Charged wire

Ground wire +

+

+

+

+

+

-

-

-

-

-

-

6'

66'

22'

11'

Ground

level

Fiberglass

stay

Trip wire

8"

6" Note:

Drawing not to scale

C-57

as a temporary corral or to partition

off pastures for controlled grazing.

Perhaps the biggest advantage of port-

able electric fencing is the ability to set

up temporary pens to hold livestock at

night or during other predator control

activities. Portable fencing increases

livestock management options to

avoid places or periods of high preda-

tion risk. Range sheep that are not

accustomed to being fenced, however,

may be difficult to contain in a port-

able fence.

Fencing and Predation Manage-

ment. The success of various types of

fencing in keeping out predators has

ranged from poor to excellent. Density

and behavior of coyotes, terrain and

vegetative conditions, availability of

prey, size of pastures, season of the

year, design of the fence, quality of

construction, maintenance, and other

factors all interplay in determining

how effective a fence will be. Fencing

is most likely to be cost-effective where

the potential for predation is high,

where there is potential for a high

stocking rate, or where electric modifi-

cation of existing fences can be used.

Fencing can be effective when incorpo-

rated with other means of predation

control. For example, combined use of

guarding dogs and fencing has

achieved a greater degree of success

than either method used alone. An

electric fence may help keep a guard-

ing dog in and coyotes out of a pas-

ture. If an occasional coyote does pass

through a fence, the guarding dog can

keep it away from the livestock and

alert the producer by barking.

Fencing can also be used to concen-

trate predator activity at specific places

such as gateways, ravines, or other

areas where the animals try to gain

access. Traps and snares can often be

set at strategic places along a fence to

effectively capture predators. Smaller

pastures are easier to keep free from

predators than larger ones encompass-

ing several square miles (km

2

).

Fencing is one of the most beneficial

investments in predator damage con-

trol and livestock management where

practical factors warrant its use.

As a final note, fences can pose prob-

lems for wildlife. Barrier fences in par-

ticular exclude not only predators, but

also many other wildlife species. This

fact should be considered where fenc-

ing intersects migration corridors for

wildlife. Ungulates such as deer may

attempt to ju mp fences, and they occa-

sionally become entangled in the top

wires.

Cultural Methods and Habitat

Modification

At the present time, there are no docu-

mented differences in the vulnerability

of various breeds of sheep to coyote or

dog predation because there has been

very little research in this area. Gener-

ally, breeds with stronger flocking

behaviors are less vulnerable to preda-

tors.

A possible cause of increased coyote

predation to beef cattle calves is the

increased use of cattle dogs in herding.

Cows herded by dogs may not be as

willing to defend newborn calves from

coyotes as those not accustomed to

herding dogs.

Flock or Herd Health. Healthy

sheep flocks and cow/calf herds have

higher reproductive rates and lower

overall death losses. Coyotes often

prey on smaller lambs. Poor nutrition

means weaker or smaller young, with

a resultant increased potential for pre-

dation. Ewes or cows in good condi-

tion through proper nutrition will raise

stronger young that may be less vul-

nerable to coyote predation.

Record Keeping. Good record-

keeping and animal identification sys-

tems are invaluable in a livestock

operation for several reasons. From the

standpoint of coyote predation,

records help producers identify loss

patterns or trends to provide baseline

data that will help determine what

type and amount of coyote damage

control is ec onomically feasible.

Records also aid in identifying critical

problem areas that may require atten-

tion. They may show, for example, that

losses to coyotes are high in a particu-

lar pasture in early summer, thus high-

lighting the need for preventive

control in that area.

Counting sheep and calves regularly is

important in large pastures or areas

with heavy cover where dead livestock

could remain unnoticed. It is not

unusual for producers who do not

regularly count their sheep to suffer

fairly substantial losses before they

realize there is a problem. Determining

with certainty whether losses were due

to coyotes or to other causes may

become impossible.

Season and Location of Lambing

or Calving. Both season and location

of lambing and calving can signifi-

cantly affect the severity of coyote pre-

dation on sheep or calves. The highest

predation losses of sheep and calves

typically occur from late spring

through September due to the food

requirements of coyote pups. In the

Midwest and East, some lambing or

calving occurs between October and

December, whereas in most of the

western states lambing or calving

occurs between February and May. By

changing to a fall lambing or calving

program, some livestock producers

have not only been able to diversify

their marketing program, but have

also avoided having a large number of

young animals on hand during periods

when coyote predation losses are typ i-

cally highest.

Shortening lambing and calving p eri-

ods by using synchronized or group

breeding may reduce predation by

producing a uniform lamb or calf crop,

thus reducing exposure of small live-

stock to predation. Extra labor and

facilities may be necessary, however,

when birthing within a concentrated

period. Some producers practice early

weaning and do not allow young to go

to large pastures, thus reducing the

chance of coyote losses. This also gives

orphaned and weak young a greater

chance to survive.

The average beef cattle calf production

is about 78% nationwide. First-calf

heifers need human assistance to give

birth to a healthy calf about 40% of the

time. Cow/calf producers who aver-

age 90% to 95% calf crops generally

check their first-calf heifers every 2

hours during calving. Also, most good

producers place first-calf heifers in

C-58

small pastures (less than 160 acres [64

ha]). When all cows are bred to pro-

duce calves in a short, discreet (e.g.

60-day) period, production typically

increases and predation losses

decrease. The birth weight of calves

born to first-calf heifers can be de-

creased by using calving-ease bulls,

thus reducing birthing complications

that often lead to coyote predation.

Producers who use lambing sheds or

pens for raising sheep and small pas-

tures or paddocks for raising cattle

have lower predation losses than those

who lamb or calve in large pastures or

on open range. The more human p res-

ence around sheep, the lower the pre-

dation losses. Confining sheep entirely

to buildings virtually eliminates preda-

tion losses.

Corrals. Although predation can

occur at any time, coyotes tend to kill

sheep at night. Confining sheep at

night is one of the most effective

means of reducing losses to predation.

Nevertheless, some coyotes and many

dogs are bold enough to enter corrals

and kill sheep. A “coyote-proof” corral

is a wise investment. Coyotes are more

likely to attack sheep in unlighted cor-

rals than in corrals with lights. Even if

the corral fence is not coyote-proof, the</